Techniques that are based on modeling

Modeling has also been called observational learning, imitation or vicarious learning. It is a technique based on social learning theory. Miller and Dollard, 1941: First Historical Background Scientific of the Modeling Technique.

Bandura, 1969: Feel the foundations for operationalize the modeling technique in social learning theory. According to this author "most of human behavior is learned by observation by modeling". General Modeling Procedure: It consists of the subject observing the behavior of a model and imitates it to: acquire new response patterns (acquisition effect). Strengthen or weaken answers (inhibitory or disinhibitory effects). Facilitate the execution of existing responses in the subject's behavioral repertoire (response facilitation effect).

1. Influential theories in vicar learning
2. Theoretical and experimental basis
3. Variables that influence modeling efficiency
4. Modeling procedure
5. Modeling variants

Influential theories in vicar learning

Theories that have contributed to the elaboration of the observational or vicar learning model are the following:

• Associative theories based on C.C.: The modeling is produced by temporary contiguity between the modeler stimulus and the modeled response.
• Reinforcement theories: the reinforcing consequences are responsible for learning.
• Theories of affective feedback: emphasize the role of reinforcement, but by the CC of positive/negative emotions that accompany the reinforcement.
• Emotional Contiguity Theories: Observational learning is produced by undercover symbolic processes, without the need for the observer to make the observable response.

Theoretical and experimental basis

Social learning theory distinguishes between acquisition and execution. A subject can learn a behavior by observing a model and never put it into practice (passengers of an airplane that observe the hostess demonstrate how they should use the life jacket but have never had to use).

OBSERVATIONAL ACQUISITION OF A CONDUCT INTERVENTION AND RETENTION PROCESSES.

Attention processes: the subject's exposure to a model is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the modeling process to be carried out. It is necessary that the observer attends and perceives the relevant aspects of the model and/or modeling situation. The contiguity between the modeling stimulus and the modeled response must be accompanied by a discriminative observation mediated by the characteristics of the subject and those of the model.

Retention processes: Once the modeled behavior is observed, the subject must be able to reproduce it without the continuous presence of the model. Retention occurs through the representation of images or, more frequently, through verbal representation.

Execution: In case of producing, motor reproduction and motivation processes are involved.

Motor reproduction processes: Once the behavior is observed and retained. The proper execution of modeled behavior requires that the observer has the skills-requisite for motor reproduction.

Motivation and incentive processes: Although an observer attends and retains modeled behavior and is able to reproduce it, its execution will also depend on:

• The type of contingent consequence (positive or negative).
• The temporal relationship of the contingent consequence (next or distant). The modeling will be more effective when the contingency follows the principles of operant conditioning. We reiterate the need for modeled behavior and its consequences to be as close as possible in time.

Variables that influence modeling efficiency

The efficacy of the practical application of modeling programs is conditioned by the therapist control over different variables that influence the acquisition and execution of behavior.

Variables that influence the acquisition

Are the characteristics of: model, observer and motor reproduction.

Model characteristics

Similarity: the more similar the model and the observer in sex, age and race is that it executes the modeled behavior.

Prestige: It is also more likely to imitate models that have prestige for the observer, for their fame, expert character or social status.

Characteristics of the observer

Cognitive skills: the absence of psychic disability or aptitude deficit (attention, memory) facilitates the attention and retentive capacity of the observer. Cognitive processes such as decision -making can also be modeled, in which case higher cognitive skills may be required (abstract and associative reasoning).

Anxiety: It is convenient for the observer to be relaxed since a high level of anxiety can inhibit modeling processes.

Characteristics of the procedure

Discriminative stimuli: the use of signals (crucial elements, sound changes, etc.) help the observer to select the stimuli to attend and retain.

Distract stimuli: the elimination of possible distractions improves observational learning (if the modeling consists of a video recording it is convenient that the room is dark and that there is the minimum possible noise).

Variables that influence execution

These variables can be grouped into three types or categories: motor reproduction, motivation and generalization.

Factors that affect motor reproduction

Motor skills: the absence of physical disabilities and the motor skills facilitate the reproduction of modeled behavior.

Motor practice: the repetition of the observed behavior improves motor reproduction.

Factors that affect motivation

Consequences of model behavior: the type of vicarium contingency (reinforcement, extinction and punishment) has an impact on the observer's behavior.

Consequences of observer's behavior: the type of direct contingency (reinforcement, extinction and punishment) has an impact on the observer's behavior.

Factors that affect generalization

Similarity between the training situation and the natural environment of the observer:

The greater the degree of similarity or ecological validity exists between the place where the experiment and the natural environment of the observer are carried out, the easier it will be that the transfer between the two.

Variety of training situations: A greater variety of situations in which a behavior is modeled, greater ease to generalize it to different situations of the observer's natural environment.

Programmed practice in the natural environment: Establish homework promotes the consolidation and transfer of modeled behavior to the daily environment of the observer.

Incentives in the natural environment: the programming of reinforcers of the imitation behavior in the daily environment of the observer increases generalization.

Modeling procedure

Before starting the modeling sessions it is necessary to take into account several previous considerations:

• At the beginning of the treatment you have to establish therapeutic objectives in the short, medium and long term.
• In case of modeling several behaviors, they must be hierarchized to train them in order of progressive difficulty according to the variables that influence the acquisition and execution.
• Check the patient's ability to imagine and imitate behaviors.
• Preestablish a system of vicarious and direct reinforcements for consultation.

Feedback: constitutes a very important issue in the modeling procedure. The therapist must provide feedback to the subject after each behavior trial.

Bados, 1991: To maximize the effectiveness of this phase of the intervention, it proposes the following action guidelines:

• Be specific in comments. Avoid generalities such as "it has done it wrong or regular.
• Focus comments on behavior, not on the person.
• Use an understandable language for the observer.
• Be positive: start informing what the observer has done well and the progress he is doing.
• Praise the attempts and efforts of the observer to change.
• Give corrective feedback in the form of specific suggestions, not orders. Inform only about the behaviors modeled in the session. Use expressions such as ¿Does not believe that .. ? ¿It would not be better .. ?
• Be relatively concise. Do not extend too much to provide feedback.

Example of treatment to an adult patient diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder that presents fear of contact contagion.

Previous requirements: For its application the following steps are followed:

Therapeutic objectives are established:

• a) Rationalize obsessive thoughts.
• b) Training in muscle relaxation.
• c) Modeling of behaviors in the consultation.
• d) Transfer and generalization of behaviors to the natural environment.

As the subject presents several behaviors, they are hierarchized according to the assessment made by the subject of the degree of anxiety that they produce.

The patient is asked to imagine a scene and describe it in detail. Then it is invited to imitate behaviors executed by the therapist.

A reinforcement system is established to apply during the sessions made in the consultation.

Modeling session: Once the previous requirements are clarified, the modeling session begins:

• The therapist verbally explains the behavioral sequence to model (touching the housing of a ladder).
• The therapist asks the patient to value from 0 to 100 the degree of anxiety he feels after hearing the explanation. In informing of an 80 score, it is indicated that the relaxation technique is accommodated and applied.
• The patient shows fear and insecurity. It is explained that in the first essays it is normal to feel anxiety and insecurity.
• The therapist tells the patient to "focus his attention on the touch of his hand on the handrail and distract his mind to control the appearance of irrational thought".
• The therapist performs the behavior of climbing the staircase taking the handrail. Again, while executing the behavior, the therapist verbally explains his performance to the patient.
• The patient describes the behavior to be executed.
• Next, the patient mimics motor behavior and modeled strategies. In the first trials the therapist is close to the patient to immediately guide and reinforce his performance (very good!, Fantastic!).
• The therapist provides positive feedback (I congratulate him. Notice how it has been able to climb the staircase./… /. Remember that your degree of anxiety will progressively descend with the next essays).
• Design and planning of training generalization. With the help of the patient and the collaboration of family and friends of this.

Modeling variants

According to the observer's behavior

Passive modeling: the subject only observes the behavior of the model, without reproducing it during the training session. Passive modeling can be used in the group treatment of personal interactions of institutionalized psychotic patients as a component of social skills training (when working in groups it is unnecessary that all members rehearse the behavior of apologizing. It is enough to observe how other colleagues do).

Active modeling: The subject observes the model and then reproduces the modeled behavior in the same training session. This variant can be considered as a passive modeling followed by conduct test, so it is more effective.

Participant modeling: It is an active modeling form. The observer, after the demonstration of modeling, participates guided by this one more and more in the execution of the desired behaviors. Its main applications are phobias (it is more effective than gradual modeling) and compulsive behaviors. In the treatment of the phobia to the snakes, the subjects progressively observed more difficult with a snake. Then the observers touched, caressed and supported the body of the snake, first with gloves and then directly with their hands, while the model held the snake by the head and tail. Then the model was making increasingly narrow interactions with the reptile, first of all and then together with each of the observers, until they left the snake that was freely curled by their bodies without help without help.

Contact Desensitization: When the guide provided is physical. In a case of phobia at the heights, if the observer goes up by a steep staircase accompanied by the model that surrounds him with his arm the waist.

According to the degree of behavior to model

Modeling of intermediate behaviors: in case of molding complex responses for the observer, the terminal behavior is broken down into intermediate behaviors that are progressively modeled. It is used in phobias where the presence of anxiety hinders modeling, given the aversive nature of approximation behaviors to feared stimuli. Modeling intermediate behaviors contains two variants: gradual modeling and modeling with reinforced playback.

1. Gradual modeling: the person is proceeding to graduated sequences, progressing successively until the desired behavior-objection. It requires the hierarchy of behaviors according to the degree of anxiety it produces in the subject. It has been applied mainly in the extinction of phobias. GENERAL PROCEDURE: It consists in presenting to the client's observation a model that executes progressively more complex actions. The feared behavior is subdivided into intermediate responses, with which a list of behaviors to model. The model begins by performing the behavior that produces less anxiety while the subject observes the execution and verifies that the behavior has no negative consequences. When the extinction of the anxiety response is achieved, the modeling of the following sequence behavior continues; so on until the complete extinction of phobic behavior.

2. Modeling with forced reproduction: It consists in the fact that the model performs a behavior so that the observer reproduces it being reinforced the appropriate execution; Then the model presents increasingly difficult behaviors, the observer imitates them and the model reinforces those answers. It is used for the acquisition of complex skills (language by delayed or autistic children).

Modeling of the behavior-objection: When the answers that are going to be model are simple, the behavior-object can be directly modeled without decomposing it in other intermediates (it is not frequent in therapeutic contexts).

According to the adequacy of model behavior

Positive modeling: It is the usual type of modeling in therapeutic situations. It consists of modeling appropriate behavior. The therapist models appropriate social behavior, such as starting and maintaining a conversation, in social skills training.

Negative modeling: refers to the modeling of unwanted behaviors in natural environments (learning of criminal behaviors).

Mixed modeling: In clinical and educational situations, negative modeling followed by positive modeling is sometimes used. When certain inappropriate behaviors are frequent, they can be shown as negative feedback before modeling appropriate behavior.

According to the presentation of the model

Live modeling: the model carries out the behavior in the presence of the observer. It has the advantage that the real model can adapt its execution to the observer (simplifying it, showing alternative responses, etc.).

Symbolic modeling: Modeling is done through a recording in videocinth or in any other auditory and/or visual support.

Advantages over other variants. Are two:

• It may include special effects (highlight the facial expression of the model with a foreground, trick recording or use cartoons).
• The therapist can exercise greater control, since it is possible to correct an error of the model in the recording.

An example is the symbolic modeling applied to psychological preparation in child hospitalization.

Undercover modeling: the subject is asked to imagine the behavior of the model and usually also its consequences. Main advantage: its ease of application; It is enough to elaborate the modeling scene in the imagination, not specifying a real model or a recording. Problem: The therapist cannot directly control the modeled behavior and observer's attention. Although undercover modeling can be clinically useful, especially with subjects who have good skills to imagine, behavior modifiers prefer live modeling.

Care must be taken not to use the subject himself as a model; It is difficult for the patient to imagine himself successfully doing a feared situation, but he can visualize someone who does it well.

According to the number of observers

Individual modeling: modeling occurs before a single observer and is generally used in therapeutic contexts (assertion training in an assertive deficit) client).

Group modeling: modeling is a specially indicated technique for group application. For this reason it is usually used in educational contexts, health education programs.

ADVANTAGE: When an observer performs the behavior-objection, it can then become an optimal model for the rest of the group.

According to the number of models

Simple modeling: there is a single model. It is used in the treatment of individual cases. When the live flood is used with a client that presents the obsession of contamination with money, dust and handwashing compulsion, the therapist first manipulates these stimuli and then indicates to the client to perform the observed behaviors.

Multiple modeling: it is especially indicated for group treatment of different observers. Models, some similar and other than the observer are used. The generalization and maintenance of the changes achieved are greater with multiple modeling.

Bandura and Menlove, 1968: They compared the effects of simple modeling and multiple modeling with children who had quite intense avoidance behaviors.

Results: Both simple and multiple modeling significantly increased the approximation behaviors to dogs; However, multiple modeling was superior in the most frightening interaction, which consisted of the child with the dog alone in a small fenced area.

According to the modeling competition

MODERY MODELING: It is a domain model, that is, it has the precise skills to perform properly in the situation from the beginning. In the treatment of fobias to snakes the model is always relaxed, approaching the snake safely and taking it out of the cage without hesitation.

Coping modeling: it is a confrontation model. It begins at a level similar to that of the observer and progressively shows the necessary skills to solve the situation.

In this case the behavior of the model is anxious at the beginning and relaxed at the end.

Studies show that:

• Coping modeling: Coping modeling is more effective in cases of anxiety problems (phobias).
• Masterly Modeling: Masterly modeling is more effective in learning motor skills (driving a car).

According to the identity of the modeling

Automodeted: The model is the observer itself. It requires the use of audiovisual media to record the execution of the subject and subsequently observe its own performance.

Subjects admitted to a hospital can see themselves in a video recording making the bed along with other varied behaviors.

Modeling: The model and the observer are not the same person. This type of modeling is the usual. In clinical practice the therapist is usually the model, having to adopt different papers according to the demands of therapy.

According to the nature of the model

Modeling with human subjects: The model is a person who must possess the characteristics of similarity and/or prestige for the observer.

Molded with non -human subjects: the model is a cartoon, a puppet, a doll or a fantastic being. This models are especially useful with young children. For adults, the use of cartoon serves as a discriminative stimulus with respect to usual ads with human models (forest fires, road safety, refreshing drink).

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